Alexander Mackenzie’s Journey: Exploration, the Fur Trade, and First Nations Interactions
Alexander Mackenzie’s expedition of 1792–1793 stands as one of the pivotal moments in Canadian exploration. As the first European to cross the North American continent north of Mexico and reach the Pacific Ocean, Mackenzie’s journey was not simply an act of geographical discovery. It was the culmination of years of fur trade expansion, driven by economic ambition and the fierce competition between the North West Company (NWC) and the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC). His route along the Peace River system and his interactions with Indigenous peoples along the way highlight the profound entanglement of exploration, commerce, and cultural exchange. Mackenzie’s success, however, came with significant implications for the First Nations who encountered him, foreshadowing the transformative and often disruptive impacts of European expansion into the western interior.
The Origins of the Fur Trade and Mackenzie’s Role
The fur trade was the backbone of European colonial expansion in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries. Established primarily to meet Europe’s demand for beaver pelts, which were prized for making felt hats, the fur trade evolved into a massive economic enterprise. Initially dominated by the Hudson’s Bay Company, which operated out of coastal trading posts along Hudson Bay, the trade expanded inland through the efforts of independent traders and later the North West Company.
The North West Company, formed in the 1770s, sought to challenge the HBC’s monopoly by venturing deeper into the interior and establishing relationships directly with Indigenous trappers. Historian Harold Innis, in “The Fur Trade in Canada”, argues that the fur trade was as much about the control of geography as it was about the exchange of goods. The NWC’s traders, including Mackenzie, exemplified this philosophy, using waterways as a network for commerce and exploration.
Alexander Mackenzie, a Scottish immigrant to Canada, joined the North West Company in the early 1780s. By the time he undertook his famous expedition, Mackenzie had already established himself as a skilled trader and explorer. His earlier journey along the river that now bears his name, the Mackenzie River, led him to the Arctic Ocean in 1789. While this was a major achievement, it was not the route to the Pacific Ocean that the NWC sought. The company believed that finding a navigable route to the Pacific would open new markets in Asia and provide an advantage over the HBC. Mackenzie’s 1792–1793 expedition was launched with this grand ambition in mind.
Mackenzie’s Pacific Quest and the Peace River Journey
In May 1792, Mackenzie departed from Fort Chipewyan on Lake Athabasca, a key North West Company trading post in present-day Alberta. Accompanied by Indigenous guides, Métis voyageurs, and a small party of NWC employees, Mackenzie set out along the Peace River, which served as the gateway to the western interior. His goal was to find a water route that would connect the interior fur trade network to the Pacific Ocean, bypassing the need for overland routes controlled by rival British and American traders.
The journey along the Peace River was arduous, requiring Mackenzie and his party to traverse rapids, dense forests, and rugged terrain. The expedition relied heavily on Indigenous knowledge to navigate the complex waterways and find portage routes. The guidance of Indigenous allies, such as members of the Dane-zaa (Beaver) and Sekani peoples, was indispensable. These nations, who had long lived in the Peace River region, provided Mackenzie with the information he needed to survive and continue his journey.
Mackenzie’s journals, which were later published in “Voyages from Montreal”, reveal his growing appreciation for the expertise of his Indigenous guides, even as his writings occasionally reflect the biases of his time. Historian Barry Gough, in “First Across the Continent”, notes, “Mackenzie’s success was not merely the result of his determination but also of his reliance on the local knowledge and cooperation of the First Nations who had mapped these lands in their minds for generations.”
The journey continued across the Continental Divide, leading Mackenzie to the Fraser River and eventually to the Pacific Ocean. On July 22, 1793, Mackenzie and his party reached the shores of what is now British Columbia, inscribing his name and the date on a rock near the Dean Channel with the words, “By land from Canada.”
First Nations Reactions and Relationships
Mackenzie’s journey brought him into contact with numerous Indigenous nations, each with their own traditions, economies, and relationships to the land. For the First Nations of the Peace River region, Mackenzie’s expedition was initially met with a mix of curiosity and caution. The arrival of Europeans, while not unprecedented, was still a relatively novel experience for many communities in the region.
The Dane-zaa, who lived along the Peace River, played a crucial role in Mackenzie’s journey. Skilled hunters and trappers, the Dane-zaa had long been part of regional trade networks, exchanging goods with neighbouring nations and the NWC. Their relationship with Mackenzie was pragmatic; they provided guidance and assistance in exchange for European trade goods such as metal tools and firearms. However, the Dane-zaa were also careful to maintain control over their territories and resources, recognizing the risks of over-reliance on European traders.
Further west, Mackenzie encountered nations such as the Carrier and Coast Salish, whose economies and cultures were deeply tied to the coastal environment. These encounters were more tense. The Carrier people, who were unfamiliar with Mackenzie’s intentions, initially regarded the expedition with suspicion, fearing it might disrupt their trade networks or bring conflict. Mackenzie’s journals describe moments of negotiation, where his ability to offer goods like beads, knives, and tobacco helped ease tensions.
Historian Arthur J. Ray, in “Indians in the Fur Trade”, writes, “The First Nations who encountered Mackenzie were not passive observers but active participants in shaping these interactions. They assessed the potential benefits and dangers of engaging with European traders, often asserting their agency to protect their interests.”
Impact of Mackenzie’s Expedition on the Fur Trade
Mackenzie’s successful journey to the Pacific had significant consequences for the fur trade and the expansion of European influence in the west. His expedition demonstrated the feasibility of overland routes to the Pacific, bolstering the North West Company’s ambitions to expand its trading empire. In the decades that followed, the NWC established a network of posts across the western interior, further integrating Alberta into the fur trade economy.
For Indigenous nations, the expansion of the fur trade brought both opportunities and challenges. The trade provided access to European goods that could improve daily life, but it also introduced new dependencies and competition for resources. Overhunting, driven by the demands of the fur trade, began to strain animal populations, particularly beaver and other fur-bearing species.
The fur trade also disrupted traditional Indigenous economies and social structures. European traders introduced firearms, alcohol, and new forms of wealth that altered the balance of power within and between nations. Diseases brought by European traders, such as smallpox, had devastating effects on Indigenous communities, further exacerbating the pressures of cultural and economic change.
Conclusion
Alexander Mackenzie’s 1792–1793 expedition was a landmark event in Canadian history, symbolizing the culmination of the fur trade’s inland expansion and the ambitions of the North West Company. His journey to the Pacific Ocean revealed the interconnectedness of rivers and trade routes across Alberta and beyond, solidifying the region’s importance in the fur trade network.
Yet Mackenzie’s success was not achieved in isolation. It depended on the guidance and cooperation of Indigenous nations, whose knowledge of the land made the expedition possible. These interactions, marked by moments of both collaboration and tension, foreshadowed the complex relationships that would define the westward expansion of European influence.
Historian Barry Gough aptly concludes, “Mackenzie’s achievement was as much about exploration as it was about encounter. His journey was a meeting of worlds, one that carried both promise and peril for the First Nations who lived along his path.” The legacy of Mackenzie’s expedition is thus a story of ambition, discovery, and the enduring resilience of the Indigenous peoples whose lands he traversed.
References
- Gough, Barry M. First Across the Continent: Alexander Mackenzie’s Journey. University of Oklahoma Press, 1997.
- Mackenzie, Alexander. Voyages from Montreal. 1801.
- Ray, Arthur J. Indians in the Fur Trade. University of Toronto Press, 1998.
- Innis, Harold A. The Fur Trade in Canada. University of Toronto Press, 1956.
- Dempsey, Hugh A. Indian Tribes of Alberta. Glenbow Museum, 1998.